When you’re pregnant, food becomes more than just fuel—it becomes the foundation for your baby’s growth and development. But between morning sickness, food aversions, overwhelming nutrition advice, and confusing “rules” about what you can and can’t eat, pregnancy nutrition often feels more stressful than nourishing.
You’ve probably heard conflicting advice from well-meaning friends, read scary articles online about foods to avoid, and wondered if you’re eating “enough” or the “right” things. The truth is, pregnancy nutrition doesn’t have to be complicated or perfect. It’s about consistent, wholesome eating that supports both you and your growing baby.
This complete guide walks you through everything you need to know about pregnancy nutrition—from essential nutrients by trimester to practical meal ideas, recipes that work with your symptoms, and realistic strategies for feeding yourself well during this transformative time.
Understanding Pregnancy Nutrition Basics
During pregnancy, your nutritional needs increase significantly. You’re not just feeding yourself anymore—you’re building a human being from scratch, and your baby relies entirely on the nutrients you provide through your diet to develop organs, bones, a nervous system, and every cell in their body.
How Many Extra Calories Do You Really Need?
Despite the old saying about “eating for two,” you don’t actually need to double your food intake. Your caloric needs increase gradually throughout pregnancy, and the amount varies depending on which trimester you’re in.
First Trimester (Weeks 1-12): No extra calories needed.
Focus on nutrient quality rather than quantity. Many women actually eat less during this time due to morning sickness, and that’s completely normal—don’t stress about it.
Second Trimester (Weeks 13-27): Add about 300-350 extra calories per day.
This is roughly equivalent to a snack—think a banana with almond butter, a Greek yogurt with berries, or a small sandwich. Not a whole extra meal.
Third Trimester (Weeks 28-40): Add about 450-500 extra calories per day.
Your baby is growing rapidly and gaining most of their weight during this phase. Your body needs the extra fuel to support this incredible growth spurt.
These are averages, and your specific needs depend on your pre-pregnancy weight, activity level, and whether you’re carrying multiples. Quality matters far more than hitting exact numbers—a nutrient-dense 300 calories from whole foods provides far more benefit than 300 empty calories from processed snacks.
The Most Important Pregnancy Nutrients
Certain nutrients become especially critical during pregnancy. Understanding what matters most and why helps you make informed choices about what to eat.
Folic Acid/Folate (600-800 mcg daily)
This is perhaps the most critical pregnancy nutrient. It prevents neural tube defects like spina bifida and supports your baby’s brain and spinal cord development, which happens in the first four weeks of pregnancy—often before you even know you’re pregnant.
Start taking it now if you’re planning to conceive. Find it in leafy greens, legumes, fortified grains, and citrus fruits.
Iron (27 mg daily)
Your blood volume increases by 50% during pregnancy. Without enough iron, you risk anemia, which causes extreme fatigue and can affect your baby’s growth.
You’ll find iron in red meat, poultry, beans, spinach, and fortified cereals. Understanding iron deficiency in women helps you recognize warning signs early. To boost your levels naturally, incorporate foods rich in iron into every meal.
Many women need iron supplements beyond pregnancy as well, especially if they were deficient before conceiving.
Calcium (1,000 mg daily)
Your baby’s bones and teeth need calcium to develop properly.
If you don’t consume enough, your baby will draw calcium from your bones, potentially putting you at risk for osteoporosis later in life. That’s why meeting your calcium needs protects both you and your baby.
Find calcium in dairy products, fortified plant milks, leafy greens, tofu, and sardines with bones.
Protein (70-100g daily)
Your baby needs protein as the building blocks for cells, tissues, and organs. Adequate protein also helps stabilize your blood sugar and can reduce nausea—a welcome benefit in early pregnancy.
Protein needs increase as pregnancy progresses, reaching 100g daily by the third trimester.
Find protein in lean meats, fish, eggs, dairy, beans, lentils, nuts, and tofu. If you’re vegetarian or have meat aversions, focus on plant-based sources like legumes and Greek yogurt.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids/DHA (200-300 mg daily)
These are critical for your baby’s brain and eye development. Brain development is most rapid in the third trimester, making omega-3s especially important during late pregnancy.
Research shows DHA may improve your baby’s cognitive development while reducing the risk of preterm birth. Learn more about omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive function to understand why this nutrient matters so much.
You’ll find omega-3s in fatty fish like salmon and sardines, walnuts, chia seeds, and fortified eggs.
Iodine (220 mcg daily)
Essential for your baby’s brain development and thyroid function. Deficiency can cause developmental delays, yet many women don’t get enough—it’s one of the most overlooked pregnancy nutrients.
Understanding iodine deficiency in women helps you recognize if you’re at risk. Find iodine in iodized salt, seafood, dairy, and eggs.
Vitamin D (600-1,000 IU daily)
Works with calcium for bone development. It also supports immune function for both you and your baby.
Many women are deficient, so you may need supplementation along with food sources. Get vitamin D from fatty fish, fortified milk, and moderate sunshine exposure—about 10-15 minutes daily without sunscreen.
Choline (450 mg daily)
This often-overlooked nutrient supports your baby’s brain and spinal cord development while reducing neural tube defect risk.
Found in eggs, meat, fish, dairy, and beans. You can learn more about the best choline supplements if you need extra support—many prenatal vitamins don’t contain adequate amounts.
Choosing the Right Prenatal Vitamin
Even with the best diet, meeting all your nutrient needs through food alone is challenging. A quality prenatal vitamin fills nutritional gaps and ensures you’re getting critical nutrients—especially in the first trimester when food aversions and nausea make eating difficult.
What to Look for in a Prenatal Vitamin
Your prenatal should contain several key nutrients in specific amounts.
Look for 600-800 mcg folic acid or methylfolate (the preferred form your body can use more easily), 27 mg iron preferably as ferrous bisglycinate which is easier on your stomach, and 1,000 mg calcium or instructions to take it separately since it’s hard to fit in one pill. You also want 200-300 mg DHA for brain development, plus vitamin D, B vitamins, iodine, zinc, and choline.
Avoid prenatal vitamins with vitamin A from retinol, which can be toxic in high doses. Beta-carotene is the safe form.
Finding the right prenatal vitamin can feel overwhelming with so many options available. Our comprehensive guide to the best prenatal vitamins breaks down top picks for every need and budget. If you struggle with large pills, check out easy to swallow prenatal vitamins for smaller options.
Prefer a tastier option? The best prenatal gummies offer a more pleasant experience, though they often lack iron. For complete nutrition in one formula, explore prenatal vitamins with DHA so you don’t need multiple bottles.
Women who prefer clean ingredients often choose organic prenatal vitamins to ensure they’re getting quality nutrients without unnecessary additives or fillers.
Dealing with Prenatal Vitamin Side Effects
Many women experience unpleasant side effects from prenatal vitamins, but you have options. The most common issue is nausea, which you can combat by taking your vitamin with food (never on an empty stomach), switching to taking it at night before bed, or splitting the dose between morning and evening.
Try a gummy version if tablets make you queasy, though note that gummies often lack iron. Switch brands if your current one isn’t working—different formulations affect people differently.
If you’re struggling with nausea from your prenatal, explore prenatal vitamins for nausea that are specifically formulated to be gentle. Women with digestive sensitivity often benefit from sensitive stomach prenatal vitamins that use forms of nutrients that are easier to digest.
Constipation from iron is another common complaint.
Take your vitamin with orange juice since vitamin C aids absorption and reduces constipation. Increase your fiber and water intake throughout the day, and consider trying a different iron form—ferrous bisglycinate typically causes less constipation than ferrous sulfate.
Adding a magnesium supplement and exercising regularly also help keep things moving. Our guide on how to relieve constipation from prenatal vitamins offers additional strategies that work.
Brand matters more than you might think.
Read our Ritual vitamins review, FullWell prenatal review, and Perelel Health review to find the best option for your needs and budget. Don’t hesitate to try another if your current one isn’t working—the best prenatal is the one you’ll actually take consistently.
Important Prenatal Vitamin Facts
Ideally, start taking prenatal vitamins 1-3 months before conception. Neural tube development happens in the first four weeks of pregnancy—often before you even know you’re pregnant—so having adequate folate stores beforehand is crucial for your baby’s development.
Continue your prenatal vitamins throughout pregnancy and while breastfeeding. Your nutritional needs remain elevated during nursing, and your baby still depends on you for nutrients. Learn more about how long to take prenatal vitamins to ensure you’re supporting your body through the entire journey.
Didn’t start early? Don’t panic.
It’s never too late to start. Begin as soon as you discover you’re pregnant, and your baby will still benefit tremendously. Our article on when is it too late to start taking prenatal vitamins reassures women that starting at any point is beneficial.
Will prenatal vitamins make you gain weight?
No. Learn the truth about whether prenatal vitamins cause weight gain—they don’t directly cause weight gain, pregnancy does. The vitamins support healthy pregnancy, which includes appropriate weight gain for you and your baby.
First Trimester Nutrition: Eating Through Morning Sickness
The first trimester is nutritionally critical—your baby’s major organs, brain, and neural tube are forming. Unfortunately, it’s also when most women feel too sick to eat well, with severe nausea affecting 70-80% of pregnant women and making nutrition particularly challenging.
Why Morning Sickness Happens
Several factors contribute to nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy.
Rapidly rising hCG (pregnancy hormone) levels trigger nausea, while your heightened sense of smell makes certain foods and odors unbearable. Progesterone slows your digestion, causing discomfort and bloating. Low blood sugar from inconsistent eating worsens symptoms, as does an empty stomach producing excess acid.
The good news? Morning sickness typically peaks around weeks 8-11 and improves significantly by the second trimester.
In the meantime, focus on keeping something—anything—down rather than eating “perfectly.” Surviving this phase is more important than optimal nutrition, and your baby will be fine if you’re eating a limited diet for a few weeks.
Foods That Help Morning Sickness
When nausea strikes, certain foods are more likely to stay down.
Bland carbohydrates like crackers, toast, plain rice, and pretzels are gentle on your stomach. They absorb acid and provide quick energy without triggering nausea.
Protein-rich foods including hard-boiled eggs, cheese sticks, and nuts help stabilize blood sugar. This prevents the blood sugar crashes that worsen nausea throughout the day.
Cold foods such as smoothies, yogurt, fruit, and sandwiches are often better tolerated than hot foods because they don’t have strong smells. Temperature matters more than you’d think when everything makes you queasy.
Ginger is a natural nausea remedy you can consume as ginger tea, ginger ale (look for real ginger), ginger candies, or ginger cookies. Even smelling fresh ginger can help.
Lemon helps too, whether in lemon water, lemon drops, or just smelling fresh lemon.
Salty foods like potato chips, pickles, and broth often appeal when nothing else does. Don’t feel guilty about eating chips if that’s what stays down.
Watermelon and other water-rich fruits keep you hydrated when drinking plain water feels impossible. Staying hydrated is crucial even when you can’t eat much.
Strategic eating patterns make a huge difference.
Eat before getting out of bed by keeping crackers on your nightstand. Consume small, frequent meals every 2-3 hours to prevent an empty stomach—one of the biggest nausea triggers.
Never let yourself get too hungry. Hunger makes nausea worse, creating a vicious cycle that’s hard to break.
Sip fluids between meals rather than with them since drinking while eating can make you feel too full and trigger vomiting. Choose cold or room-temperature foods to avoid triggering nausea from strong cooking smells.
For complete relief strategies, read our guide on remedies for morning sickness with 15 natural solutions that actually work. Many women also wonder when does morning sickness start so they can prepare mentally and physically for what’s coming.
Severe Morning Sickness (Hyperemesis Gravidarum)
About 2-3% of pregnant women develop hyperemesis gravidarum (HG)—severe, persistent vomiting that causes dehydration, weight loss, and inability to keep anything down. This is a serious medical condition requiring immediate medical treatment, not something you can manage alone at home.
Signs you need medical attention immediately:
Unable to keep any food or liquids down for 24+ hours. Losing weight rather than gaining. Dark urine or infrequent urination (signs of dehydration). Dizziness, fainting, or rapid heartbeat.
Vomiting multiple times daily, and can’t function normally. Call your doctor right away—don’t wait.
If you have HG, survival mode is the goal.
Focus on small amounts of whatever you can tolerate, even if it’s not “healthy.” Ice chips if you can’t drink fluids. Bland, easy-to-digest foods like white rice or plain crackers.
Your doctor may prescribe IV fluids and anti-nausea medication. Safe options exist that can dramatically improve your quality of life—don’t suffer unnecessarily. Our article on foods during hyperemesis gravidarum shares what actually stays down when everything else comes back up, based on real women’s experiences.
First Trimester Meal Ideas
When you’re struggling with morning sickness, simple meals work best. Complex recipes and strong flavors are your enemy right now.
Breakfast options that often work:
Plain oatmeal with banana slices. Toast with almond butter. Cold cereal with milk (temperature matters—cold is often better).
Fruit smoothie with frozen fruit, yogurt, and milk. Scrambled eggs, if you can tolerate them—some women can, others can’t. Plain bagel with cream cheese.
Lunch that tends to stay down:
Chicken noodle soup with crackers. Plain pasta with butter and parmesan—simple carbs are your friend. Peanut butter and jelly sandwich on white bread.
Cold turkey and cheese sandwich. Simple quesadilla with mild cheese, no spices. Baked potato with butter and salt—bland but nourishing.
Dinner ideas for queasy evenings:
Mild chicken breast with rice. Cheese pizza, if you can handle it—don’t feel guilty about delivery—grilled cheese with tomato soup (comfort food that often works).
Plain pasta with marinara sauce. Baked fish with mashed potatoes. Chicken and rice soup (the classic sick day meal).
Easy snacks to keep accessible:
Saltine crackers. Pretzels. String cheese. Greek yogurt (protein helps). Fruit popsicles (hydration + calories). Watermelon chunks. Apple slices. Graham crackers.
Keep these snacks everywhere—your purse, your car, your nightstand, your desk. Never let yourself get too hungry because that triggers worse nausea.
Our complete collection of recipes for the first trimester of pregnancy offers easy, nausea-friendly meals you can actually stomach. For real-world advice from women who’ve been there, read our first trimester diet tips on what to eat when nothing sounds good and you’re just trying to survive.
Managing Food Aversions
Suddenly hating foods you previously loved is completely normal in early pregnancy. It’s your body’s way of protecting your baby during the critical early development phase.
Common aversions include:
Coffee (even the smell makes many pregnant women sick). Meat, especially red meat and chicken. Vegetables with strong smells like onions, garlic, and broccoli. Even plain water can become revolting.
Don’t force it.
Don’t force foods that make you feel sick—this will only worsen your nausea and create negative associations that might last your entire pregnancy. Instead, find alternative sources of nutrients.
If you can’t eat meat, try beans, eggs, or dairy for protein. If vegetables make you sick, eat fruit for vitamins and fiber—it’s not ideal but it’s better than nothing.
Focus on what you CAN eat.
Even if your diet feels extremely limited, that’s okay for now. Most aversions improve by the second trimester, and you’ll have plenty of time to eat a varied diet then.
Get creative with preparation.
Sometimes it’s the method rather than the food itself. Maybe you can’t tolerate grilled chicken but a cold turkey sandwich is fine. Perhaps cooked vegetables make you sick but raw carrots are okay.
Try different temperatures, textures, and preparation methods. The same food prepared differently might work when the original version didn’t.
Second Trimester Nutrition: The Golden Phase
Welcome to the second trimester—when most women finally feel like eating again! Your energy returns, nausea subsides, and you can focus on truly nourishing yourself and your growing baby without feeling sick all the time.
This is the ideal time to establish healthy eating patterns, explore new nutritious foods, meal prep for the third trimester when you’ll be too tired to cook, build variety into your diet, and focus on quality calories that support your baby’s rapid development.
Second Trimester Nutritional Priorities
Your baby is growing rapidly, and your calorie needs increase by about 300-350 calories daily. More importantly, certain nutrients become especially critical during this trimester.
Protein (75-100g daily) becomes increasingly important.
Your baby’s tissues, organs, and cells are developing quickly. Aim for protein at every meal and most snacks—think eggs at breakfast, chicken at lunch, and fish at dinner with nuts as snacks.
Good sources include lean meats, fish, eggs, dairy, beans, lentils, nuts, and tofu. If you’re vegetarian, focus on combining different plant proteins throughout the day.
Calcium (1,000 mg daily) is critical now.
Your baby’s skeleton is hardening, and teeth are forming beneath the gums. If you don’t consume enough calcium, your baby will draw it from your bones—putting you at risk for osteoporosis later in life.
Calcium-rich foods to eat daily:
Dairy products: milk, yogurt, cheese. Fortified plant milks: almond, soy, oat (check labels for calcium content). Leafy greens: collard greens, kale, bok choy.
Tofu that’s calcium-set (check the label). Sardines with bones (sounds gross but they’re packed with calcium and omega-3s). Fortified orange juice. Almonds as a snack.
Iron (27 mg daily) remains crucial.
Your blood volume continues increasing, peaking in the second trimester. Iron prevents anemia, which can cause extreme fatigue and increase the risk of complications during pregnancy and delivery.
Maximize iron absorption with these strategies:
Eat iron-rich foods with vitamin C sources like orange juice, strawberries, bell peppers, or tomatoes—vitamin C increases absorption dramatically. Avoid tea and coffee with meals because tannins block iron absorption—drink them between meals instead.
Cook in a cast-iron skillet, which actually adds iron to your food. Take your iron supplement separately from calcium since they compete for absorption.
Our guide on iron-rich foods for pregnancy shows you exactly which foods pack the most iron punch.
Omega-3 DHA is essential for brain development.
Your baby’s brain development accelerates dramatically in the second and third trimesters. DHA (found in fatty fish and fish oil supplements) is literally the building block of brain tissue—without adequate DHA, brain development can be compromised.
Best omega-3 sources:
Salmon, preferably wild-caught. Sardines (don’t knock them until you try them). Anchovies. Herring.
Omega-3-enriched eggs (chickens fed flaxseed). Walnuts for plant-based omega-3. Chia seeds and flaxseeds (grind them for better absorption). DHA supplement from algae if you’re a vegetarian.
Learn about omega-3 supplements in pregnancy to understand dosing and quality considerations.
Fiber (25-35g daily) prevents constipation.
Constipation worsens as pregnancy progresses due to progesterone and your growing uterus putting pressure on your intestines. Fiber also stabilizes blood sugar and supports gut health, both crucial during pregnancy.
High-fiber foods to eat regularly:
Whole grains: oats, brown rice, quinoa, whole wheat bread. Legumes: beans, lentils, chickpeas (double benefit—fiber plus protein). Fruits: berries, apples with skin, pears, prunes (nature’s laxative).
Vegetables: broccoli, Brussels sprouts, carrots, sweet potatoes. Nuts and seeds as snacks.
Building a Balanced Pregnancy Plate
Every meal should follow this simple template to ensure balanced nutrition.
1/4 Plate: Protein
Lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, beans, tofu, tempeh, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese. This is your foundation—protein at every meal is non-negotiable during pregnancy.
1/4 Plate: Complex Carbohydrates
Whole grains, starchy vegetables (sweet potato, squash, corn), quinoa, brown rice, and whole grain pasta. These provide sustained energy and important B vitamins.
1/2 Plate: Vegetables
Aim for variety—different colors provide different nutrients. Eat the rainbow! Raw or cooked, fresh or frozen (both are equally nutritious—frozen is often fresher since it’s frozen at peak ripeness).
Add Healthy Fats in reasonable amounts:
Avocado slices, nuts, seeds, olive oil for cooking, fatty fish twice weekly, and nut butters spread on toast or fruit.
Include Fruit throughout the day:
2-3 servings daily, fresh or frozen. Fruit provides vitamins, fiber, and natural sweetness when pregnancy cravings hit.
Don’t Forget Dairy or Calcium Alternatives:
3-4 servings daily from milk, yogurt, cheese, or fortified plant-based alternatives. Your baby’s bones depend on consistent calcium intake.
Second Trimester Meal Ideas
Now that you’re feeling better, you can enjoy a wider variety of foods. Here are nutritious, satisfying meal ideas that provide balanced nutrition.
Breakfast options:
Greek yogurt parfait with berries, granola, and slivered almonds. Scrambled eggs with spinach, mushrooms, and whole-grain toast. Oatmeal topped with banana slices, walnuts, and a drizzle of honey.
Smoothie bowl with blended fruit, protein powder, topped with chia seeds and fresh fruit. Avocado toast on whole-grain bread with two hard-boiled eggs on the side. Whole-grain waffles with almond butter and fresh berries.
Lunch ideas:
Quinoa bowl with roasted chickpeas, roasted vegetables, and creamy tahini dressing. Turkey and avocado sandwich on whole-grain bread, with a side salad dressed with olive oil.
Hearty lentil soup with whole grain crackers and an apple. Grilled chicken Caesar salad made with pasteurized dressing and a whole-grain roll. Burrito bowl with black beans, brown rice, vegetables, salsa, and guacamole.
Baked salmon over mixed greens with roasted sweet potato chunks.
Dinner ideas:
Baked salmon with roasted sweet potato wedges and steamed broccoli. Chicken stir-fry loaded with colorful vegetables served over brown rice.
Whole wheat pasta with ground turkey, marinara sauce, and a side salad. Grilled chicken breast with quinoa and roasted Brussels sprouts. Beef and vegetable tacos on whole-grain tortillas with black beans and guacamole.
Baked cod with wild rice and sautéed spinach with garlic.
Snack ideas to keep you satisfied:
Apple slices with almond butter (protein + fiber). Greek yogurt with fresh berries and a sprinkle of granola. Hummus with carrot sticks, bell pepper strips, and cucumber slices.
Trail mix with nuts, seeds, and a bit of dried fruit (watch portions—calorie-dense). Cheese cubes with whole-grain crackers. Two hard-boiled eggs with cherry tomatoes.
Smoothie made with protein powder, fruit, and spinach. Cottage cheese with pineapple chunks. Steamed edamame sprinkled with sea salt.
Our healthy lunch ideas for pregnant women offer even more quick, nutritious options that pack easily for work. For fast dinners when you’re tired, check out 7 quick and easy dinner ideas for busy pregnant moms that take 30 minutes or less.
Need complete weekly planning? Our healthy meal plans for pregnancy takes the guesswork out of what to eat each day.
Third Trimester Nutrition: Fueling the Final Stretch
The third trimester brings increased caloric needs (add 450-500 extra calories daily) and unique nutritional challenges. Your baby is gaining significant weight—about half a pound per week—and your body needs extra nutrients to support this incredible, rapid growth spurt before delivery.
Third Trimester Eating Challenges
Physical discomfort makes eating more difficult in late pregnancy, but your baby needs more nutrients than ever.
A lack of stomach space is a real problem.
As your baby grows, your stomach compresses, making large meals uncomfortable or even impossible. You might feel full after just a few bites, even though you’re still hungry.
Solution: Eat smaller, more frequent meals throughout the day—aim for 5-6 small meals rather than three large ones. Think of it as grazing all day rather than distinct mealtimes.
Heartburn returns with a vengeance.
Many women experience severe acid reflux as the growing uterus pushes stomach acid upward and the valve between the stomach and esophagus relaxes.
Solution: Avoid trigger foods (spicy, acidic, fried, chocolate, caffeine), eat small meals, don’t lie down within 2-3 hours of eating, and sleep with your upper body elevated on pillows.
Increased thirst is constant.
Your body needs more fluids to support increased blood volume and amniotic fluid production. You’ll feel thirsty all the time.
Solution: Carry your water bottle everywhere, drink before you’re thirsty (thirst means you’re already mildly dehydrated), and eat water-rich foods like watermelon, cucumbers, and soup.
Fatigue makes cooking feel impossible.
Third-trimester exhaustion can make meal preparation feel overwhelming when you can barely stay awake, let alone cook an elaborate meal.
Solution: Batch-cook and freeze meals now (you’ll thank yourself postpartum), keep simple ingredients on hand for quick-assemble meals, and don’t hesitate to accept help from partners, family, or friends.
Third Trimester Nutritional Focus
Specific nutrients become even more critical as you approach delivery.
Protein (100g daily) reaches its peak need.
Your baby is gaining significant weight, requiring substantial protein to build tissue. Continue prioritizing protein at every meal and snack—this isn’t the time to skimp.
Lean meats, fish, eggs, dairy, beans, nuts, and Greek yogurt should feature prominently in your diet. If you’re struggling to eat enough because you’re full, try protein smoothies that deliver nutrition in a drinkable form.
Calcium (1,000 mg daily) remains essential.
Your baby’s skeleton is hardening and strengthening for life outside the womb. Maintain consistent calcium intake through dairy products, fortified plant milks, leafy greens, tofu, sardines, and almonds.
Iron (27 mg daily) is crucial before delivery.
Continue iron supplementation to prevent anemia before delivery—you’ll lose blood during birth (whether vaginal or cesarean), so adequate iron stores are essential for your recovery.
If your prenatal doesn’t contain enough iron or you’re anemic, your doctor may prescribe additional supplementation. Take it seriously—anemia makes postpartum recovery much more complicated.
Omega-3 DHA for final brain development.
Brain development peaks in the third trimester as your baby’s brain is growing rapidly and forming crucial neural connections. Continue omega-3-rich foods like salmon, sardines, walnuts, and chia seeds, plus supplementation if recommended.
Vitamin K supports blood clotting.
Important for delivery when blood clotting becomes crucial for both you and the baby. Found in leafy greens, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and fermented foods like sauerkraut.
Zinc supports immune function.
Helps your baby’s immune system develop and supports cell growth during this rapid phase of growth. Found in meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains.
Foods to Reduce Swelling
Many women experience significant swelling in their feet, ankles, and hands during the third trimester. While some swelling is normal (your blood volume has increased 50%), these foods can help reduce excess fluid retention.
Natural diuretic foods help release excess fluid:
Celery stalks. Cucumber slices. Watermelon chunks. Fresh berries. Asparagus. Leafy greens like spinach and kale. Lemon water throughout the day.
Hydration seems counterintuitive, but it works.
Drinking MORE water actually reduces swelling, not less. When you’re dehydrated, your body holds onto fluids as a protective mechanism. Adequate hydration signals your body it’s safe to release excess liquid.
Aim for at least 10 cups of water daily, more if you’re active or it’s hot outside.
Potassium-rich foods balance sodium:
Bananas (the classic potassium source). Sweet potatoes (loaded with potassium and vitamins). Avocados (healthy fats plus potassium). Spinach (potassium plus iron). Coconut water (natural electrolytes). Tomatoes in salads or sauce.
Understanding potassium deficiency in women helps you recognize if you need more of this important mineral.
Reduce sodium to minimize water retention.
Limit processed foods, restaurant meals, and add extra salt to your food. Excess sodium worsens swelling by causing your body to retain more water.
Third Trimester Meal Ideas
Focus on nutrient-dense, easy-to-digest meals that don’t trigger heartburn. Small portions are key.
Breakfast options:
Oatmeal with berries and slivered almonds. Scrambled eggs with avocado slices and whole-grain toast. Greek yogurt smoothie with spinach, banana, and protein powder.
Whole-grain cereal with milk and sliced banana. Cottage cheese with fresh fruit and a drizzle of honey with granola.
Lunch ideas:
Hearty chicken and vegetable soup with whole-grain crackers. Turkey sandwich with lots of vegetables on whole-grain bread. Quinoa salad with chickpeas, cucumbers, tomatoes, and feta cheese.
Baked sweet potato topped with black beans, salsa, and a dollop of Greek yogurt. Lentil soup with a side of mixed greens and apple slices.
Dinner suggestions:
Baked salmon with roasted vegetables (carrots, zucchini, bell peppers). Slow cooker chicken with brown rice and steamed green beans. Mild turkey chili with a small piece of cornbread.
Baked cod with sweet potato wedges and sautéed spinach. Pasta with marinara sauce, ground turkey, and a simple side salad. Stir-fried tofu with mixed vegetables over rice.
Easy third-trimester snacks:
Pre-cut fruit in containers. Pre-portioned nuts in small bags. String cheese with whole grain crackers. Individual yogurt cups with berries.
Hummus cups with baby carrots and snap peas. Hard-boiled eggs are made in batches on Sunday. Smoothies you can blend and drink quickly—cheese cubes with apple slices.
Keep everything simple and pre-portioned. You’re too tired for elaborate meal prep, and small portions prevent heartburn.
Our collection of easy soups for pregnancy offers comforting, nourishing recipes perfect for the late stages of pregnancy. For additional simple meals, check out 4 healthy meal recipes for pregnancy that are quick and satisfying when you’re exhausted.
Pregnancy Smoothie Recipes: Quick Nutrition
Smoothies are an excellent way to pack nutrition into a single, portable meal. They’re especially valuable when you’re too nauseous to eat solid food, too tired to cook, or need something quick between work meetings.
Why Smoothies Work During Pregnancy
Smoothies solve multiple pregnancy challenges at once.
First trimester benefits:
Cold temperature soothes nausea better than hot foods. Easy to consume when food aversions are strong and everything sounds terrible. Can hide vegetables like spinach in fruit smoothies—you’ll never taste it.
Easier to digest than heavy meals that sit in your stomach. Keeps you hydrated when plain water makes you sick.
Throughout pregnancy:
Quick nutrition when you’re exhausted and can’t face cooking. Portable—drink on your commute to work or between appointments. Customizable to your specific nutrient needs and taste preferences.
Great for meeting protein goals without eating meat. A convenient way to consume fruits and vegetables when you’re not eating enough produce.
Building a Pregnancy-Healthy Smoothie
Every smoothie should include these key components for balanced nutrition.
Protein (15-25g):
Greek yogurt provides 15-20g of protein per cup. Protein powder from whey, pea, or collagen peptides. Cottage cheese blended until smooth (trust us, you can’t taste it).
Nut butter, like almond or peanut butter, adds 7-8g per 2 tablespoons. Silken tofu blends smoothly and adds plant protein.
Fruit (1-2 servings):
Berries are packed with antioxidants. Banana adds potassium and natural sweetness. Mango provides vitamin C and a tropical flavor.
Pineapple aids digestion with natural enzymes. Frozen fruit works perfectly, making smoothies thick and cold.
Leafy Greens (1-2 cups):
Spinach provides iron and folate with a mild flavor that disappears in fruit smoothies. Kale offers calcium and vitamins but has a more pungent taste. Swiss chard is nutrient-dense.
Start with less if you’re new to green smoothies. You can gradually increase the amount as you get used to the taste.
Healthy Fat:
Avocado creates a creamy texture while adding healthy fats for baby’s brain. Nut butter adds richness. Chia seeds provide omega-3s and create a pudding-like texture.
Flaxseeds are a good source of omega-3s (grind them first for better absorption). Hemp hearts add protein and healthy fats.
Liquid Base (1-2 cups):
Milk (dairy or fortified plant-based) adds calcium and protein. Coconut water provides natural electrolytes. Kefir adds probiotics for gut health.
100% fruit juice in small amounts for sweetness. Plain water if you want fewer calories.
Optional Boosters:
Dates for natural sweetness and fiber. Rolled oats for extra fiber and staying power. Cinnamon helps regulate blood sugar.
Vanilla extract for flavor without sugar. Cocoa powder for chocolate cravings (contains some caffeine—use sparingly).
Top 5 Pregnancy Smoothie Recipes
These smoothies are specifically designed to support pregnancy nutrition while tasting delicious.
1. Green Goddess Pregnancy Smoothie
- 1 cup spinach (you won’t taste it).
- 1 frozen banana.
- 1/2 cup frozen mango chunks.
- 1 cup Greek yogurt.
- 1 tablespoon almond butter.
- 1 cup milk of choice.
- 1 tablespoon chia seeds.
- Optional: a handful of ice.
Blend until smooth. Provides protein, calcium, iron, healthy fats, and folate.
2. Berry Protein Power Smoothie
- 1 cup mixed frozen berries.
- 1 scoop protein powder (vanilla or unflavored).
- 1 cup Greek yogurt.
- 1/2 avocado for creaminess.
- 1 cup milk.
- 1 tablespoon ground flaxseed.
- A handful of spinach.
- Optional: 1 tablespoon honey.
Blend until creamy. High in protein, omega-3s, and antioxidants.
3. Tropical Immunity Smoothie
- 1 cup frozen pineapple chunks.
- 1/2 frozen banana.
- 1/2 cup frozen mango.
- 1 cup coconut water.
- 1 cup Greek yogurt.
- Juice of 1/2 orange.
- 1 tablespoon hemp hearts.
- A small piece of fresh ginger (optional; great for nausea).
Blend until smooth. Rich in vitamin C, protein, and anti-nausea properties.
4. Chocolate Peanut Butter Pregnancy Smoothie
- 2 tablespoons natural peanut butter.
- 1 frozen banana.
- 1 cup milk of choice.
- 1 cup Greek yogurt.
- 1 tablespoon cocoa powder (unsweetened).
- 1 tablespoon ground flaxseed.
- 1-2 pitted dates for sweetness.
- A handful of ice.
Blend until thick and creamy. Satisfies chocolate cravings while providing protein and healthy fats.
5. Iron-Boost Green Smoothie
- 2 cups spinach (iron-rich).
- 1 cup frozen strawberries (vitamin C boosts iron absorption).
- 1 frozen banana.
- 1 cup orange juice.
- 1 cup Greek yogurt.
- 1 tablespoon almond butter.
- 1 tablespoon chia seeds.
- Optional: 1 tablespoon blackstrap molasses (very high in iron).
Blend thoroughly. Specifically designed to boost iron levels naturally.
Our complete guide to the top 5 prenatal smoothie recipes includes additional variations and tips for making smoothies that support your pregnancy journey.
Foods to Avoid During Pregnancy
While most foods are safe during pregnancy, certain foods carry risks of foodborne illness or contain harmful substances. Understanding what to avoid protects your baby’s development and your health.
High-Mercury Fish (Avoid Completely)
Mercury accumulates in fish and can harm your baby’s developing nervous system and brain. The damage can be permanent and affect cognitive development.
Never eat these fish:
Shark. Swordfish. King mackerel. Tilefish (golden bass or golden snapper). Bigeye tuna (often used in sushi).
These large, long-lived fish accumulate the most mercury. There are no safe levels.
Safe fish you CAN eat (2-3 servings per week):
Salmon (wild-caught preferred). Tilapia. Cod. Catfish. Pollock. Shrimp. Canned light tuna (limit albacore/white tuna to once weekly—it’s higher in mercury).
These fish are low in mercury but high in beneficial omega-3 fatty acids. They’re safe and nutritious during pregnancy.
Raw or Undercooked Foods
Foodborne illness is more serious during pregnancy because your immune system is suppressed. Infections that cause mild symptoms in others can seriously harm your baby or cause pregnancy complications.
Raw fish to avoid:
Sushi with raw fish. Sashimi. Poke bowls with raw fish. Ceviche (fish “cooked” in citrus—still raw).
Raw oysters, clams, and mussels. These can harbor harmful bacteria and viruses.
Undercooked meat is risky:
Rare or medium-rare beef, pork, or lamb. Pink poultry of any kind. Cook all meat to safe internal temperatures: 165°F for poultry, 145°F for whole cuts of beef/pork, 160°F for ground meat.
Use a meat thermometer to check—color isn’t always reliable.
Raw eggs and foods containing them:
Runny or soft-boiled eggs with liquid yolks. Homemade Caesar dressing made with raw egg. Raw cookie dough or cake batter.
Homemade mayonnaise. Hollandaise sauce. Tiramisu made with raw eggs.
Cook the eggs until both the yolk and the white are completely firm. Commercial versions of these foods (store-bought mayo and dressings) are made with pasteurized eggs and are safe.
Unpasteurized Foods (Listeria Risk)
Listeria is a dangerous bacterium that can cause serious pregnancy complications, including miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm labor, or severe illness in newborns. It’s especially dangerous because it can grow even in refrigerated foods.
Unpasteurized dairy products:
Raw milk of any kind. Soft cheeses made from unpasteurized milk: brie, camembert, feta, blue cheese, queso fresco, queso blanco.
Check labels carefully—these cheeses are SAFE if labeled “made with pasteurized milk.” Hard cheeses like cheddar are generally safe.
Other unpasteurized products:
Fresh-squeezed juice unless it’s been pasteurized (check the label). Apple cider is not pasteurized. Unpasteurized kombucha.
Pasteurization kills harmful bacteria while maintaining nutritional value. Always choose pasteurized options during pregnancy.
Deli meats and hot dogs are risky.
They can harbor Listeria even when properly refrigerated. If you eat them, heat to steaming hot (165°F) first—this kills Listeria.
Better yet, skip them until after delivery. Opt for freshly cooked meats instead.
Refrigerated smoked seafood:
Avoid lox, smoked salmon, and other refrigerated smoked fish—there’s a risk of listeria. Canned or shelf-stable smoked fish are safe. Cooked smoked fish in casseroles is fine.
Other Foods to Limit or Avoid
Several other foods pose risks during pregnancy.
Raw sprouts should be avoided:
Alfalfa, clover, radish, and mung bean sprouts can harbor harmful bacteria like E. coli and Salmonella. Cooked sprouts are safe—cook them thoroughly until steaming hot.
Unwashed produce is dangerous.
Always thoroughly wash fruits and vegetables under running water before eating. Scrub firm produce with a clean brush.
Unwashed produce can carry toxoplasmosis (a parasitic infection) and other harmful bacteria. This is especially important for items you’ll eat raw.
Caffeine should be limited to 200mg daily.
Excessive caffeine is linked to miscarriage and low birth weight. One 12-ounce cup of coffee per day is generally safe (about 200mg caffeine).
Remember, caffeine is also in tea (black and green), chocolate, soda, and energy drinks. Count all sources toward your daily total.
Alcohol has no safe amount.
No amount of alcohol is safe during pregnancy—none. Alcohol can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), affecting your baby’s brain development, physical growth, and facial features.
The damage is permanent and preventable by avoiding alcohol altogether.
Herbal teas require caution.
Some herbs aren’t safe during pregnancy and can trigger contractions or other complications.
Safe herbal teas: ginger (great for nausea), peppermint (aids digestion), raspberry leaf tea (third trimester only—helps prepare uterus for labor). Moderate amounts of chamomile are probably fine.
Avoid: large amounts of chamomile, licorice root, sage tea, and parsley tea in large amounts. When in doubt, ask your healthcare provider.
Excess vitamin A from animal sources:
Too much vitamin A from retinol (animal sources) can cause birth defects. Avoid high-dose vitamin A supplements and liver.
Beta-carotene (plant-based vitamin A from carrots, sweet potatoes) is safe—your body converts only what it needs.
Understanding the truth about pregnancy-safe foods helps you navigate confusing advice with confidence. Don’t let pregnancy diet guilt overwhelm you—focus on what you CAN eat rather than stressing about restrictions.
Sample Weekly Pregnancy Meal Plan
Having a plan takes the stress out of daily food decisions. This sample week provides balanced nutrition for the second trimester—adjust portions for your trimester and hunger levels.
Monday
- Breakfast: Oatmeal with sliced banana, walnuts, cinnamon, and a dollop of Greek yogurt
- Snack: Apple slices with almond butter
- Lunch: Quinoa bowl with grilled chicken, roasted vegetables, chickpeas, and tahini dressing
- Snack: Hummus with carrot and bell pepper sticks
- Dinner: Baked salmon with roasted sweet potato and steamed broccoli
- Evening Snack: Greek yogurt with berries
Tuesday
- Breakfast: Scrambled eggs with spinach, mushrooms, and whole grain toast with avocado
- Snack: Trail mix with nuts and dried fruit
- Lunch: Turkey and avocado sandwich on whole grain bread with side salad
- Snack: String cheese with whole grain crackers
- Dinner: Chicken stir-fry with brown rice and mixed vegetables
- Evening Snack: Cottage cheese with pineapple
Wednesday
- Breakfast: Greek yogurt parfait with granola, berries, and chia seeds
- Snack: Hard-boiled eggs with cherry tomatoes
- Lunch: Lentil soup with whole grain crackers and an orange
- Snack: Smoothie with banana, spinach, protein powder, and milk
- Dinner: Whole wheat pasta with ground turkey marinara and side salad
- Evening Snack: Apple with peanut butter
Thursday
- Breakfast: Whole grain waffles with almond butter and fresh berries
- Snack: Edamame with sea salt
- Lunch: Grilled chicken Caesar salad (pasteurized dressing) with whole grain roll
- Snack: Greek yogurt with granola
- Dinner: Baked cod with quinoa and sautéed spinach
- Evening Snack: Cheese and whole grain crackers
Friday
- Breakfast: Smoothie bowl with blended fruit, protein powder, topped with granola and fresh fruit
- Snack: Banana with almond butter
- Lunch: Black bean burrito bowl with brown rice, vegetables, salsa, and guacamole
- Snack: Hummus with cucumber slices
- Dinner: Grilled chicken with roasted Brussels sprouts and sweet potato
- Evening Snack: Greek yogurt with honey and walnuts
Saturday
- Breakfast: Veggie omelet with cheese and whole-grain toast
- Snack: Mixed berries with cottage cheese
- Lunch: Salmon salad over mixed greens with balsamic vinaigrette and whole-grain bread
- Snack: Trail mix and an apple
- Dinner: Turkey chili with cornbread and side salad
- Evening Snack: Smoothie with berries and Greek yogurt
Sunday
- Breakfast: Whole grain pancakes with Greek yogurt and fresh fruit
- Snack: String cheese with grapes
- Lunch: Chicken and vegetable soup with whole grain crackers
- Snack: Celery with peanut butter
- Dinner: Baked chicken with wild rice and roasted vegetables
- Evening Snack: Dark chocolate square with almonds
This meal plan provides approximately 2,100-2,300 calories daily with balanced macronutrients. Adjust portions based on your individual needs, activity level, and trimester. The complete healthy meal plans for pregnancy guide offers additional weekly plans and shopping lists.
Staying Hydrated During Pregnancy
Water is essential for nearly every function in your pregnant body. Proper hydration supports your increased blood volume, forms amniotic fluid, aids nutrient transport, prevents constipation, and helps your body function optimally for you and your baby.
How Much Water Do You Really Need?
Pregnant women need more water than usual to support the incredible changes happening in their bodies.
General guideline: 10 cups (80 ounces) minimum daily.
This is baseline. You need more if you’re physically active, in hot or humid weather, experiencing morning sickness and vomiting, showing signs of dehydration, or carrying multiples.
Signs you’re well-hydrated:
Urine is pale yellow or clear (like lemonade, not apple juice). Urinating regularly throughout the day—about every 2-3 hours. Lips and skin aren’t dry or flaky.
You don’t feel constantly thirsty. Energy levels are reasonable for pregnancy (not extreme fatigue).
Signs of dehydration:
Dark yellow or amber-colored urine. Infrequent urination—going 4+ hours without needing to pee. Dry mouth and cracked lips.
Headache or dizziness, especially when standing. Fatigue beyond normal pregnancy tiredness. Constipation that won’t improve. Feeling thirsty constantly.
If you’re experiencing dehydration symptoms, increase your water intake immediately and contact your healthcare provider if symptoms persist.
Why Hydration Matters So Much in Pregnancy
Proper hydration provides crucial benefits throughout pregnancy.
Supports increased blood volume:
Your blood volume increases by 50% during pregnancy. This extra blood requires extra fluid—without adequate water, your body can’t produce enough blood to support you and your baby.
Helps form amniotic fluid:
Amniotic fluid surrounds and protects your baby in the womb. Adequate hydration ensures your baby has sufficient fluids for development and protection.
Aids nutrient transport to the baby:
Water is the vehicle that carries nutrients from your bloodstream through the placenta to your baby. Dehydration impairs this critical process.
Prevents urinary tract infections:
UTIs are common during pregnancy and can lead to serious complications. Staying hydrated helps flush bacteria from your urinary system.
Reduces swelling (counterintuitive but true):
When dehydrated, your body holds onto every drop of fluid, worsening swelling. Adequate hydration signals your body it’s safe to release excess liquid.
Prevents constipation:
Water softens stool and helps food move through your intestines. Dehydration is a major cause of pregnancy constipation.
Regulates body temperature:
Pregnancy raises your body temperature. Water helps regulate temperature through sweating and circulation.
Reduces risk of preterm labor:
Dehydration can trigger contractions and potentially lead to preterm labor. Staying hydrated helps prevent this complication.
Improves skin elasticity:
Well-hydrated skin is more elastic and may help reduce stretch marks. It also prevents the dry, itchy skin common in pregnancy.
Helps prevent hemorrhoids:
By preventing constipation, adequate water intake reduces your risk of developing painful hemorrhoids.
Our comprehensive guide on pregnancy hydration explains exactly how much water you really need. For practical strategies, read how to stay hydrated during pregnancy with tips that actually work when you’re tired of drinking plain water.
Practical Hydration Tips
Making hydration easier helps you meet your daily water goals.
Keep water accessible everywhere:
Keep a water bottle with you always—in your car, on your desk, in your purse, on your nightstand. Set phone reminders to drink every hour if you forget.
Drink a full glass of water first thing every morning before eating. Use an app to track your intake and celebrate when you meet your goal.
Make water more appealing:
Flavor water naturally with lemon, cucumber, fresh mint, or berries. Drink herbal tea (pregnancy-safe varieties) hot or iced.
Try carbonated water if you’re craving fizz without sugar. Eat water-rich foods like watermelon, cucumbers, oranges, strawberries, and soup.
Strategic timing reduces bathroom trips:
Drink most of your water during the daytime rather than in the evening. Limit fluids 2-3 hours before bedtime to reduce nighttime bathroom trips.
Don’t reduce overall intake—just shift timing. Empty your bladder each time you urinate.
Do Kegel exercises to strengthen your pelvic floor muscles. Avoid caffeine, which irritates your bladder and increases urgency.
Special Considerations and Additional Resources
Every pregnancy is unique, and some women face additional nutritional challenges or considerations.
Vegetarian and Vegan Pregnancy Nutrition
Plant-based diets can absolutely support healthy pregnancy with careful planning.
Focus on these nutrients:
Protein from beans, lentils, tofu, tempeh, quinoa, and nuts. Iron from legumes, fortified cereals, and leafy greens (always pair with vitamin C). Calcium from fortified plant milks, tofu, tahini, and leafy greens.
Vitamin B12 from fortified foods or supplements (critical—no plant sources). Omega-3 DHA from algae-based supplements. Zinc from legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains.
Iodine from iodized salt and seaweed (in moderation). Choline from soybeans, quinoa, Brussels sprouts, and broccoli.
Consider working with a registered dietitian who specializes in plant-based pregnancy nutrition. Our guide on vegan prenatal vitamins helps you find supplements that meet your needs without animal products.
High-Risk Pregnancy Nutritional Needs
Some pregnancies require extra nutritional attention and medical supervision.
Conditions requiring specialized nutrition:
Gestational diabetes needs carbohydrate control and blood sugar monitoring. Preeclampsia may require sodium restriction and increased protein. Multiple pregnancies (twins, triplets) need significantly more calories and nutrients.
Advanced maternal age (35+) may need additional supplementation. History of pregnancy complications requires individualized care.
If you have a high-risk pregnancy, work closely with your healthcare team for personalized nutritional guidance. Learn more about prenatal vitamins for high-risk pregnancies that provide enhanced nutritional support.
Pregnancy Nutrition on a Budget
Eating well during pregnancy doesn’t require expensive specialty foods or supplements.
Budget-friendly, nutritious foods:
Eggs are a cheap, versatile protein. Canned beans and lentils provide protein and fiber for pennies. Frozen vegetables are as nutritious as fresh and last longer.
Bananas are an affordable fruit year-round. Oats make cheap, filling breakfasts. Peanut butter provides protein and healthy fats at a low cost.
Canned tuna (light, not albacore) and canned salmon are affordable sources of omega-3s. Store-brand prenatal vitamins work just as well as expensive brands. Buy whole chickens and cook them at home instead of buying prepared meals.
Shop sales, use coupons, buy in bulk when possible, and choose store brands. Nutrition matters more than organic labels—conventional produce is fine if that’s what you can afford.
A Word From Vitamins For Woman
Pregnancy nutrition doesn’t have to be perfect to be good enough. Listen to your body’s signals, trust your instincts, nourish yourself with intention, and don’t hesitate to ask for help when you need it. You’re growing a human being, which is perhaps the most incredible thing your body will ever do.
References
- American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Nutrition During Pregnancy. ACOG FAQ001. https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/nutrition-during-pregnancy
- Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation. Nutrition During Pregnancy: Part I Weight Gain: Part II Nutrient Supplements. Washington (DC): National Academies Press; 1990. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK235231/
- Zerfu TA, Ayele HT. Micronutrients and pregnancy; effect of supplementation on pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review. Nutr J. 2013;12:20. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3570319
- Quinla JD, Hill DA. Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Am Fam Physician. 2003;68(1):121-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12887118
- Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Ausdal WV. Omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation during pregnancy. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2008;1(4):162-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621042/
- Koletzko B, Lien E, Agostoni C, et al. The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations. J Perinat Med. 2008;36(1):5-14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184094
- Bailey RL, West KP Jr, Black RE. The epidemiology of global micronutrient deficiencies. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66 Suppl 2:22-33. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26045325
- Zeisel SH. Choline: critical role during fetal development and dietary requirements in adults. Annu Rev Nutr. 2006;26:229-50. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16848706
- Derbyshire E, Davies J, Costarelli V, Dettmar P. Diet, physical inactivity and the prevalence of constipation throughout and after pregnancy. Matern Child Nutr. 2006;2(3):127-34. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6860667/
- American Pregnancy Association. Foods to Avoid During Pregnancy. Updated 2021. https://americanpregnancy.org/healthy-pregnancy/pregnancy-health-wellness/foods-to-avoid-during-pregnancy/
